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Chalatenango

xls116 — Thu, 03 Sep 2009 08:40:45 +0200

Galvanized Steel Pallet , alatenango can refer to:
the Chalatenango Department in El Salvador
the city Chalatenango in El Salvado , infrared receiver module .
This disambiguation page lists articles associated with the same title. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article , electrical junction boxes .
Categories: Disambiguation pagesHidden categories: All disambiguation pages | All article disambiguation page , el products .

Plasma cutting

xls116 — Thu, 03 Sep 2009 08:40:37 +0200

High Speed Precision Rotary Sheet Cutter For Cardboard(roll to sheet) ,
Process
Freehand cut of heavy metal
The HF Contact type typically found in budget machines uses a high-frequency, high-voltage spark to ionise the air through the torch head and initiate an arc. These require the torch to be in contact with the job material when starting, and so are not suitable for applications involving CNC cutting.
The Pilot Arc type uses a two cycle approach to producing plasma, avoiding the need for initial contact. First, a high-voltage, low current circuit is used to initialize a very small high-intensity spark within the torch body, thereby generating a small pocket of plasma gas. This is referred to as the pilot arc. The pilot arc has a return electrical path built into the torch head. The pilot arc will maintain itself until it is brought into proximity of the workpiece where it ignites the main plasma cutting arc. Plasma arcs are extremely hot and are in the range of 15,000 degrees Celsius.
Plasma is an effective means of cutting thin and thick materials alike. Hand-held torches can usually cut up to 2 in (48 mm) thick steel plate, and stronger computer-controlled torches can pierce and cut steel up to 12 inches (300 mm) thick. Formerly, plasma cutters could only work on conductive materials; however, new technologies allow the plasma ignition arc to be enclosed within the nozzle, thus allowing the cutter to be used for non-conductive workpieces such as glass[citation needed] and plastics[citation needed] , electric guitar kit .
Since plasma cutters produce a very hot and very localized "cone" to cut with, they are extremely useful for cutting sheet metal in curved or angled shapes , cnc foam cutting .
Starting method , bits tools .
Plasma cutters use a number of methods to start the pilot arc, depending on the environment the unit is to be used in and its age. Older cutters use a high voltage, high frequency circuit to start the arc. This method has a number of disadvantages, including risk of electrocution, difficulty of repair, sparkgap maintenance, and the large amount of radio frequency emissions. Plasma cutters working near sensitive electronics, such as CNC hardware or computers, use the contact start method. The nozzle and electrode are in contact. The nozzle is the cathode, and the electrode is the anode. When the plasma gas begins to flow, the nozzle is blown forward. A third, less common method is capacitive discharge into the primary circuit via a Silicon Controlled Rectifier , cutting blades .
Inverter plasma cutters
Analog plasma cutters, typically requiring more than 2 kilowatts, use a heavy mains-frequency transformer. Inverter plasma cutters rectify the mains supply to DC, which is fed into a high-frequency transistor inverter between 10kHz to about 200kHz. Higher switching frequencies give greater effiencies in the transformer, allowing its size and weight to be reduced.
The transistors used were initially MOSFETs, but are now increasingly using IGBTs. With paralleled MOSFETs, if one of the transistors activates prematurely it can lead to a cascading failure of one quarter of the inverter. A later invention, IGBTs, are not as subject to this failure mode. IGBTs can be generally found in high current machines where it is not possible to parallel sufficient MOSFET transistors.
The switch mode topology is referred to as a dual transistor off-line forward converter. Although lighter and more powerful, some inverter plasma cutters, especially those without power factor correction, cannot be run from a generator (that means manufacturer of the inverter unit forbids doing so; it is only valid for small, light portable generators). However newer models have internal circuitry that allow units without power factor correction to run on light power generators.
Plasma gouging
Plasma gouging is a related process, typically performed on the same equipment as plasma cutting. Instead of cutting the material, plasma gouging uses a different torch configuration (torch nozzles and gas diffusers are usually different), and a longer torch-to-workpiece distance, to blow away metal. Plasma gouging can be used in a variety of applications, including removing a weld for rework. The additional sparks generated by the process requires the operator to wear a leather shield protecting their hand and forearm. Torch leads also can be protected by a leather sheath or heavy insulation.
CNC cutting methods
Plasma cutting with a CNC machine
Plasma cutting with tilting head with the HPR260
Plasma cutters have also been used in CNC (computer numerically controlled) machinery. Manufacturers build CNC cutting tables, some with the cutter built in to the table. The idea behind CNC tables is to allow a computer to control the torch head making clean sharp cuts. Modern CNC plasma equipment is capable of multi-axis cutting of thick material, allowing opportunities for complex welding seams on CNC welding equipment that is not possible otherwise. For thinner material cutting, plasma cutting is being progressively replaced by laser cutting, due mainly to the laser cutter's superior hole-cutting abilities.
A specialized use of CNC Plasma Cutters has been in the HVAC industry. Software will process information on ductwork and create flat patterns to be cut on the cutting table by the plasma torch. This technology has enormously increased productivity within the industry since its introduction in the early 1980s.
In recent years there has been even more development in the area of CNC Plasma Cutting Machinery. Traditionally the machines' cutting tables was horizontal but now due to further research and development Vertical CNC Plasma Cutting Machines are available. This advancement provides a machine with a small footprint, increased flexibility, optimum safety, faster operation, energy efficiency, ergonomic and more environmentally friendly.
New technology
High performance cut
In the past decade plasma torch manufacturers have engineered new models with a smaller nozzle and a thinner plasma arc. This allows near-laser quality on plasma cut edges. Several manufacturers have combined precision CNC control with these torches to allow fabricators to produce parts that require little or no finishing.
Costs
Plasma torches were once quite expensive. For this reason they were usually only found in professional welding shops and very well-stocked private garages and shops. However, modern plasma torches are becoming cheaper, and now are within the price range of many hobbyists. Older units may be very heavy, but still portable, while some newer ones with inverter technology weigh only a little, yet equal or exceed the capacities of older ones.
See also
Plasma arc welding
Water jet cutter
External links
HowStuffWorks on plasma cutting
Plasma Cutter Safe Work Method Statement
v d e
Metalworking

Tools
Cutting machines
Water jet cutter Band saw Cold saw Laser Miter saw Plasma
Cutting tools
Broach Burr Chisel Counterbore Countersink End mill File Guillotine shear Hand scraper Milling cutter Nibbler Reamer Throatless shear Tipped tool Tool bit
Forming tools
Brake Die English Wheel Flypress Hydraulic press Machine press Punch press Stamping press
Hand tools
Clamp Combination square Drift pin File card Hacksaw Hammer Hand scraper Machinist square Magnetic base Needlegun scaler Pipe and tube bender Pliers Punch Saw piercing Scriber Tap and die Tongs Vise Workbench Wrench
Machine tooling
Angle plate Chuck Collet Jig Fixture Indexing head Lathe center Machine taper Magnetic base Mandrel Rotary table Wiggler
Measuring instruments
Bore gauge Caliper Comparator Dial indicator Engineer's blue Feeler Center gauge and fishtail gauge Gauge block Gauge Go-NoGo Machinist square Marking blue Marking gauge Marking out Micrometer Radius gauge Scale Sine bar Spirit level Straightedge Surface plate Tape measure Thread pitch Height gauge Vernier scale Wiggler
Smithing tools
Anvil Forge Fuller Hardy hole Hardy tools Pritchel Slack tub Steam hammer Swage block Trip hammer
Casting Fabrication Forming Jewellery Machining Metallurgy Smithing Tools & Terminology Welding
Categories: Cutting machines | Metalworking cutting tools | Plasma processingHidden categories: Articles lacking sources from November 2008 | All articles lacking sources | All articles with unsourced statements | Articles with unsourced statements from May 2009

Roy Harter

xls116 — Fri, 28 Aug 2009 08:02:11 +0200

DJ Player ,
Roy Harter
Roy Harter in his home studio, 2003
Background information
Birth name
Roy Gunther Harter
Born
March 6, 1973 in Sunnyside, Queens, New York
Genre(s)
Country, Rock, Dub, Experimental
Occupation(s)
Sound Designer, Musician
Instrument(s)
Keyboards, Theremin
Roy Harter (born March 6, 1973) is an American composer, music producer, audio engineer, and musician most known for his work in television and film. He is the owner of the post-production facility SkinnyMan, located in Times-Square, New York. He is also the keyboardist for Dan Donnelly's performing and recording band Sonovagun. Roy Harter also hosts a weekly radio show, "Roy Harter's Outlaw Hour".
Contents
1 SkinnyMan
2 Notable Events
3 Personal life
4 Filmography
5 Discography
6 Awards
7 References
8 External links
//
SkinnyMan
In 2008 Roy set up his current television and film post-production facility SkinnyMan, located in Times Square, New York City. He has composed or mixed television commercials, promos, and shows for the following major television networks: Noggin, VH-1, Lifetime, Nickelodeon, Nick Jr., MTV, M2, TV Land, Nick at Nite, Fox News, Sci Fi Channel, Comedy Central, BBC, USA Networks, Court TV, Logo, Spike TV, WE, Discovery Channel, Cartoon Network, Disney Channel, CBS, ABC, Food Network, Oxygen, ESPN, Bravo.
Notable Events
Using various musicians, including members of Paul Simon's band and Stiff Little Fingers, Roy Harter composed all the promotional music for the children's television network Noggin. The "Alley Pond Park Ensemble" he created for the project was given strict rules that only allowed the musicians to perform using common household items, such as pots and pans.
In the spring of 2002, Erik Friedlander created Broken Shadows, Radio Nights at Tonic. Roy was hired to provide onstage sound effects for a series of old-fashioned live radio broadcasts.
In July 2003, Roy Harter's first solo album "Lover of Beauty and Coffee Breath" was released. He played all the instruments on the album.

Roy Harter giving a televised alpine bell performance in Times Square, New York
On October 21, 2005 Harter gave a televised alpine bell performance in Times Square, New York City. The event was sponsored by Verizon and aired on Nickelodeon. The performance was also simulcast on the Viacom Jumbo-Tron Screen in Times Square, New York.
Harter performed on the main stage at the 2006 Beautiful Days Festival in Devon, UK, as part of Dan Donnelly's live band, Sonovagun. In 2008 Roy Harter performed with Dan Donnelly and Sonovagun on the Leftfield Stage at Glastonbury Festival.
In January 2007, Roy began a weekly radio show entitled "Roy Harter's Outlaw Hour", airing every Sunday night on UK based, Tinternet Radio. The show is primarily a music program showcasing outlaw country and rebellious musical acts, both classic and modern.
Personal life
Roy Harter currently lives in Manhasset, Long Island. His younger brother Kenneth Harter is a music producer and holistic healer living in California.
Filmography
2003: Tide Composer
2005: The Mad One Actor
2007: Area X - Composer
2007: Astoria Park Sound Design / Mix
2007: The Slackers - Sound Design / Mix
2008: Act As If - Sound Design / Mix
Discography
As Roy Harter
2003: Lover of Beauty and Coffee Breath
As Audio Engineer or Producer
2001: Liz Skillman - "In the Middle"
2002: Liz Skillman - "Wayphoria"
2000: Abbey of Regina Laudis - "Women in Chant"
2000: Bed Devils - "Le Caprice"
1999: Dequincy Dream - "Solfege"
1998: Dequincy Dream - "Jeepers Mister, Thanks for the Sweet Deal"
With Dan Donnelly & Sonovagun
2006: Bootleg
2006: The Beach E.P.
2007: Yearning a Living
2008: Live in NYC
Awards
2002 Promax Award Silver
Music Package / Sound Design Post Score or Instrumental Theme
Comedy Central, "Shocktoberfest in South Park" - Composer
2003 Promax Award Silver
Use of Music
Nickelodeon, Sponge Bob Square Pants "Are You Square Enough?" - Composer and Audio Mixer
2003 BDA Award Bronze
Non-News Out of House Open
Nickelodeon, "Slam! Opening Theme" - Sound Designer and Audio Mixer
2003 BDA Award Bronze
Non-News Out of House Interstitial
Nicktoons Holiday Party - Composer and Audio Mixer
2003 BDA Award Silver
Non-News / In-House Image Promo Over:30 to:90
Noggin, "Spill It Campaign" - Composer
2003 Promax Award Gold
Holiday Image Campaign
Nickelodeon, "Nicktoons Holiday Image Campaign" - Composer and Audio Mixer
2006 BDA Award Silver
Interactive Media, Greeting, E-card or E-vite
Harrison Industries, "5C Cocktail Party" - Composer and Audio Mixer
2006 BDA Award Gold
Interactive Media, DVD Design
Editional Effects Reel - Sound Designer
2007 Promax Award Gold
Marketing Presentation, Internal
Anatomy Media, Reuters "Time of Our Lives" - Sound Designer and Audio Mixer
2007 Promax Award Gold
Marketing Presentation, External
Anatomy Media, USA Networks Upfront "Character's Welcome" - Sound Designer and Audio Mixer
References

External links
SkinnyMan website
Sonovagun website
Alpine Bells website
Roy Harter MySpace website
Categories: 1973 births | Living people | American composers | American keyboardists | Theremin players To get More information , you can visit some products about egg music box, mug tree, craft flower, pen gift set, . The DJ Player products should be show more here!

McCann Rescue Chamber

xls116 — Thu, 27 Aug 2009 08:00:52 +0200

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The McCann Submarine Rescue Chamber is a device for rescuing submariners from a submarine that is unable to surface.
Contents
1 History
2 USS Squalus rescue
3 Design
4 Limitations
5 See also
6 References
//
History
During the first two decades of the United States Navy Submarine Force, there had been several accidents in which US Navy submarines had sunk with the loss of life. The impetus for the invention for the chamber was the loss of the S-51 on 25 September 1925, and the loss of the S-4 on 17 December 1927. In the case of the S-4, all of her officers and men were able to reach unflooded compartments as the submarine went to the bottom in 110 feet of water. However, the majority, who had gone aft, soon succumbed. In her torpedo room, forward, six men remained alive. Heroic efforts were made to rescue six survivors trapped in the forward torpedo room, who had exchanged a series of signals with divers, by tapping on the hull. In extremely cold water and tangled wreckage, Navy divers worked desperately to rescue them, but a storm forced the abandonment of this effort on 24 December. Despite the efforts, the men were lost and forty men lost their lives in the tragedy.
These experiences led Charles Bowers Momsen to think of technical alternatives for rescuing survivors from sunken submarines, which at that time was still a virtual impossibility. Momsen soon conceived the idea of a submarine rescue chamber lowered from the surface to mate with a submarine's escape hatch and proposed the concept through official channels. While in command of the submarine S-1 (SS-105), in 1926, Momsen wrote to the Bureau of Construction and Repair and recommended the adoption of a diving bell for the purposes of rescuing entrapped personnel from submarines. But this idea was pigeonholed by the bureaucracy, even during his own subsequent assignment at the Bureau of Construction and Repair. The loss of the S-4 with all hands put the Navy was very much "on the spot" because of the loss of lives that might have been saved. The pressure of this incident forced favorable action and Momsen, using the aircraft hanger from the S-1 designed and built a prototype submarine rescue chamber

During the first three months of 1928, divers and other salvage personnel were able to raise the sunken S-4 and tow her to the Boston Navy Yard, where she was drydocked and repaired. She returned to active duty in October 1928 and was employed thereafter as a submarine rescue and salvage test ship. Momsen went to sea in the reconditioned S-4 to carry out practical experiments and training with the rescue chambers.
Work with the S-4 helped to develop equipment and techniques that bore fruit a decade later, when 33 men were brought up alive from the sunken submarine USS Squalus. The first diving bells for rescuing men from submarines were designed by the Bureau of Construction and Repair, in 1928. The diving bell went through a series of tests off the shores of Key West, Florida. Based on these tests, Momsen had several changes in mind for the bell, and after nearly two years of experimentation full of highly interesting results, the final bell was evolved and christened a "rescue chamber." This success was then the catalyst for gaining approval for development of the submarine rescue chamber in 1930. Before he could make these changes, Momsen went to the Bureau of Construction and Repair to work on an underwater breathing apparatus for individual escapes. Momsen turned to devising the "Momsen Lung," demonstrating it successfully in a series of unauthorized experiments in the Anacostia and Potomac Rivers, and finally attracted enough favorable attention to see the lung adopted by the Navy in 1929.
Lieutenant Commander Allan Rockwell McCann was put in charge of the revisions on the diving bell. From July 1929 to July 1931, McCann was assigned to the Maintenance Division, Bureau of Construction and Repair, where he developed the submarine rescue chamber. When the bell was completed in late 1930, it was introduced as the McCann Rescue Chamber. In 1931 a one-fifth scale model of a diving bell for submarine rescue work was built and tested. Design called for the bell to withstand the external pressure encountered at a depth of at least 300 feet of water, and the test showed that the model fulfilled this requirement with a factor of safety of about 3.5. The vessel was tested under external pressure, failure occurring in the shell at a pressure of 470 lbs. per sq. in. Since the head of the vessel remained intact, it was decided to make a test of the head itself in order to determine its strength relative to that of the shell, and if possible to obtain some measure of the stresses occurring under load. The head collapsed at a pressure of 525 lbs. per sq. in., indicating that its strength under external pressure was about 10% in excess of that of the shell.
USS Squalus rescue
In 1939, the McCann Rescue Chamber made its debut when it was used to successfully rescue thirty-three survivors from the USS Squalus , At the time of the Squalus disaster, Lieutenant Commander Charles B. Momsen was serving as head of the Experimental Diving Unit at the Washington Navy Yard. And the submarine rescue ship USS Falcon (ASR-2), commanded by Lieutenant Grant A. Sharp, was on site within twenty-four hours lowered the newly developed McCann rescue chamber -- a revised version of a diving bell invented by Momsen -- and, in four trips over the next 13 hours, all 33 survivors were rescued from the stricken submarine in the first deep submarine rescue ever. Although there was no reason to believe anyone was alive in the aft part of the ship, a fifth run was made to the aft torpedo room hatch on May 25. This run confirmed the flooding of the entire aft portion of the ship.
Design

The rescue chamber was a pear shaped steel chamber, the big end uppermost, seven feet at the greatest diameter and ten feet high. It is divided into an upper closed compartment and a lower open compartment by a horizontal bulkhead which has a water tight hatch in its middle. Surrounding the lower compartment is a ballast tank of a capacity just equal to that of the lower compartment. Inside the lower compartment is a reel with 400 feet of ?" steel wire on it. The reel is operated by a shaft leading into the upper compartment. The shaft is rotated by an air motor. On the bottom edge of the lower compartment a rubber gasket is embedded into a circular groove, so that when the chamber is brought into contact with a flat surface (the hatch ring) a water tight joint may be effected with the application of pressure. Attached to the upper compartment is an air supply and an atmospheric exhaust hose, wire wound for strength. Also electric cables for telephone and light are attached. A wire pendant for hoisting and lowering is shackled into a padeye on top. This wire is also used for retrieving the chamber in case of emergency. . The forward and after hatches of American submarines were fitted for attaching the rescue chamber. They have a flat doughnut shaped plate welded to the hatch combing upon which the bottom of the chamber rests and a bail over the center of the hatch to which the haul down wire must be attached by the diver.
Limitations
The McCann bell suffers severe limitations in strong currents and when dealing with a pressurized submarine or one lying at extreme angles. It is also incapable of functioning below 850 feet. The USN Submarine Rescue chamber (SRC) is air transportable to a Vessel Of Opportunity (VOO) Mother Ship (MOSHIP )which requires little modification to use the system. Transfer Under Pressure (TUP) to and from pressurized environments such as submarines or hyperbaric chambers is not possible with this system, even though TUP is essential where being subjected to ambient... To get More information , you can visit some products about digital shutter speed, rj45 jacks, auto wiper blades, cast iron seats, . The Solvent Inks for Xaar 128/200 and 126/200 Printhead products should be show more here!

Robin Lovitt

xls116 — Wed, 26 Aug 2009 10:09:06 +0200

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Robin McKennel Lovitt (born November 6, 1963) is a convicted murderer in the U.S. state of Virginia. He is serving life in prison without parole after being convicted of the November 18, 1998 stabbing murder of Clayton Dicks in Arlington County, Virginia.
He was granted clemency by Virginia Governor Mark R. Warner on November 29, 2005, the day before he was scheduled to be executed by lethal injection at the Greensville Correctional Center.
Robin Lovitt would have been the first person executed by the Commonwealth of Virginia since James Edward Reid on 9 September 2004. It would have been the 1000th execution in the United States since the Supreme Court ruled in Gregg v. Georgia that new capital punishment laws were constitutionally permissible in 1976.
Contents
1 Murder
2 Trial and appeals
3 See also
4 References
//
Murder
Clayton Dicks was a manager at an Arlington pool hall, working the night shift. He was the only employee there from 3 a.m. onwards. Casel Lucas, an inmate who befriended Lovitt in prison testified that Lovitt told him that he hid in a bathroom until he knew there would be no other people in the pool hall. He then went to jimmy open the cash register but was disturbed by Dicks. Lovitt had previously worked as a cook at the pool hall. The manager, Amy Hudon, said that he had helped her pry open the cash register with the scissors a few months before the murder. Lovitt ceased working there about two months before the murder.
Jose Alverado and Carlos Clavell entered the pool hall at 3:25 a.m. and witnessed two men fighting behind the counter. One of the men fighting proceeded to stab the other with a silver-colored weapon and then kicked him as he lay on the ground. Alverado and Clavell said that they ran from the pool hall to a service station and rang 9-1-1. Dicks was stabbed five times in his chest and once in his back. Four of these wounds were lethal. He was still alive when paramedics arrived but died after reaching hospital.
Police found that the cash register had been broken into and one of it money boxes was missing. A canine unit located a pair of bloodied, orange-handled scissors nearby that were identified as being a pair that were kept next to the cash register. DNA testing showed that the blood on them was from Dicks. Lovitt's cousin testified that Lovitt had come to his house on the night of 18 November carrying a metal box, which they opened with a screwdriver and split the money. Lovitt told police that he had seen a Hispanic man stabbing Dicks, and then took the cash box, which was lying on the floor of the pool hall. A forensic scientist testified that the cash box that was at the cousins house came from the cash register at the pool hall.
Trial and appeals
Lovitt was arrested on November 24, 1998 and convicted by a jury of capital murder during the commission of a robbery on September 20, 1999.
Lovitt appealed his conviction on the basis that there is no physical evidence linking him to the crime. He claims the entire case is based on circumstantial evidence and the testimony of witnesses, one of whom was a prisoner. Jose Alverado was only 80% certain that the man he saw fighting behind the counter was Lovitt. Witness testimony was contradictory and according to Lovitt and his lawyers, the evidence in the case just as easily points to Jose Alverado and Carlos Clavell being the murderers.
Casel Lucas, the prisoner who testified is a drug addict, who had been convicted of a dozen felonies including attempted rape. It was not revealed to the jury that this was the fifth time that Lucas has testified in cases involving people he befriended in prison.
On May 2, 2001 a new law came into effect in Virginia that required all biological evidence in capital cases to be sent to a state laboratory for safe-keeping. But less than three weeks later, Robert C. McCarthy, Chief Deputy Clerk of the Circuit Court of Arlington County had the evidence in the Lovitt case destroyed. Two other clerks said they told McCarthy not to order the destruction of the evidence because it was a capital case. McCarthy told them that he thought he was authorized to destroy the trial exhibits after Lovitt's convictions were affirmed by the Supreme Court of Virginia.
In October 2000, Lovitt's case was taken up on a pro bono basis by the law firm of Kirkland & Ellis, LLP. Kirkland worked with the University of Notre Dame's Washington Semester Program in pursuing Lovitt's appeals. Lovitt was also represented by the Virginia Capital Representation Resource Center. When Kirkland began representing Lovitt, Kenneth Starr, currently Dean of the Pepperdine University School of Law and former United States Solicitor General, became involved in the case. Starr is pro-capital punishment and has stated that:
"he death penalty has to be administered with the utmost caution and reserved for the gravest offenses. This is not that kind of case. Robin Lovitt maintains his innocence, and evidence that might prove his innocence has been destroyed. I'm very distressed by that. Society had better be absolutely certain before they put someone to death who is maintaining his innocence. I feel very passionately about that."
The Supreme Court of Virginia, the U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia and the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit have all denied his appeals for overturning his conviction since the evidence has been destroyed. The 4th Circuit Court of Appeals said they would only overturn if it could be shown that McCarthy acted in "bad faith."
His execution was originally scheduled for July 11, 2005, but was stayed by the Supreme Court of the United States to give themselves more time to consider his appeal. They decided not to hear the case again, resulting in a new execution date of November 30, 2005 being set.
Little more than 24 hours before the execution Governor Mark R. Warner commuted Lovitt's sentence to life in prison without parole. He said that the destruction of evidence was improper and that the:
"[ The actions of an agent of the Commonwealth, in a manner contrary to the express direction of the law, comes at the expense of a defendant facing society's most severe and final sanction. The commonwealth must ensure that every time this ultimate sanction is carried out, it is done fairly."
It was the first time Warner had granted clemency during his governorship.
It was revealed during the penalty phase of the trial that Lovitt had been charged with assault and placed in protective supervision at age of 11 in October 1975. Then in August 1979 he was charged with burglary and larceny. Between 1983 and the murders he was convicted multiple times of larceny, burglary and possession of marijuana and cocaine.
See also
Capital punishment in Virginia
Capital punishment in the United States
References
November 2005 Executions from ProDeathPenalty.com
Report from National Coalition to Abolish the Death Penalty
"Va. gov. grants clemency for condemned man". Associated Press. November 29, 2005. http://www.oregonlive.com/newsflash/national/index.ssf?/base/national-55/113331027616860.xml&storylist=national.
"Warner facing tough decision". Richmond Times-Dispatch. November 22, 2005. http://www.timesdispatch.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=RTD%2FMGArticle%2FRTD_BasicArticle&c=MGArticle&cid=1128768295290&path=!news&s=1045855934842.
"Jailhouse witness scrutinized". Richmond Times-Dispatch. November 4, 2005. http://www.timesdispatch.com/servlet/Satellite?pagename=RTD%2FMGArticle%2FRTD_BasicArticle&c=MGArticle&cid=1128767939284&path=!news&s=1045855934842.
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CO? retention for co2 gas regulator

xls116 — Wed, 26 Aug 2009 08:26:01 +0200

Mechanical Pencil Refill ,

(Redirected from CO2 retention)
CO2 retention is a pathophysiological process in which too little carbon dioxide is removed from the blood by the lungs. The end result is hypercapnia, an elevated level of carbon dioxide dissolved in the bloodstream. Various diseases may lead to this state; disturbed gas exchange may lead to impaired excretion of the gas. In addition, breathing air with a high carbon dioxide concentration may also lead to hypercapnia.
The principal result of the increased amount of dissolved CO2 is acidosis (respiratory acidosis when caused by impaired lung function); other effects include tachycardia (rapid heart rate) seizures, coma, respiratory arrest and death.
CO2 retention is a problem in various respiratory diseases, particularly chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). Patients with COPD who receive excessive supplemental oxygen can develop CO2 retention, and subsequent hypercapnia. The mechanism that underlies this state is a matter of controversy. Some authorities point to a reduction in the hypoxic "drive", a condition called carbon dioxide narcosis. When carbon dioxide levels are chronically elevated, the respiratory center becomes less sensitive to CO2 as a stimulant of the respiratory drive, and the PaO2 provides the primary stimulus for respirations. Administering excess supplemental oxygen can potentially suppress the respiratory center. However, it is unclear whether such a hypoxic drive exists in the first place. An alternative explanation is that, in patients with COPD, the administration of oxygen leads to an increase in the degree to which diseased alveoli are perfused with blood relative to other, less-disease
d alveoli. As a result, a larger fraction of blood passes through parts of the lung that are poorly-ventilated, with a resulting increase in the CO2 concentration of the blood leaving the lungs.
As CO2 levels increase, patients exhibit a reduction in overall level of consciousness as well as respiratory effort. Severe increases in CO2 levels can lead to respiratory arrest.
CO2 retention is the hallmark of type II respiratory failure. While in type I any degree of hypoxia is compensated for by hyperventilation (and a decrease in CO2), this mechanism fails in type II. Mechanical ventilation (through intubation, CPAP or BIPAP) may be indicated, or infusion of doxapram.
In diving
CO2 retention with its attendant dangers of death from convulsions and hypoxia (low oxygen level) is primarily of concern to the scuba diver due to "skip breathing". Other mechanisms of CO2 retention are breath-hold diving, breathing in a sealed environment, faulty regulator, exercise at extreme depth and using contaminated air.
Symptoms include rapid respiration in 4-6%, rapid pulse rate, shortness of breath in 7-10% and convulsions and unconsciousness in 11-20%.
The CO2 level in the blood is unchanged by the ambient pressure (i.e., the depth) per se, since the partial pressure of carbon dioxide in a scuba diver's blood is a function only of metabolism and the rate and depth of breathinghe same factors that determine blood CO2 concentration on land.
All of the CO2 developed during breathing from open circuit equipment underwater is normally expelled from the apparatus in the exhaled breath as bubbles. The partial pressure of CO2 produced by the body does not increase with depth as do other gases in breathing mixes, such as nitrogen, oxygen, carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons.
Abnormal carbon dioxide accumulation in the blood can occur from too high a level of metabolism, such as from exercise at depth, or from inadequate breathing. If the diver takes shallow breaths or skip breathes, a larger proportion of the CO2 is not completely expelled and is re-inhaled on the next breath. The medical term for high carbon dioxide in the blood is hypercapnia; when the level is high enough it can cause "CO2 toxicity," which can lead to shortness of breath, headache, confusion and drowning (depending on how severe).
Elevated CO2 levels play a significant role in oxygen toxicity and in nitrogen narcosis. The acceptable CO2 level for diving operations is 1.5% surface equivalent (10.5 mmHg); the acceptable level for hyperbaric oxygen therapy operations is one that allows a vent schedule of 4scfm/person displacement.
Closed circuit equipment
With the increased usage of rebreather diving, mainly by the militaryut recently by more and more civilian divers, there is the possibility of hypercapnia (high CO2 levels), among other medical considerations.
Signs and symptoms that need to be observed are hyperventilation, shortness of breath and tachycardia (rapid heart beat), headache and excessive sweating, mental impairment and finally, unconsciousness.
This hypercapnia comes about due to malfunction of the soda lime CO2 absorbent canisters and can be avoided by decreasing the exercise rate, watching out for the operating limits of the canister, checking for leaks at the start of the dive and not reusing the absorbent.
Categories: Pulmonology | Diving medicine
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Conversational Monitor System for Car Mo...

xls116 — Mon, 24 Aug 2009 08:19:03 +0200

LED screens ,

Main articles: VM (operating system), CP/CMS, and History of CP/CMS
The Conversational Monitor System (CMS; originally: "Cambridge Monitor System") is a relatively simple interactive computing single-user operating system.
CMS is part of IBM's VM family, which runs on IBM mainframe computers. VM was first announced in 1972, and is still in use today (cf. z/VM).
CMS was originally developed as part of IBM's CP/CMS operating system, which went into production use in 1967.
CMS runs as a "guest" operating system in a private virtual machine created by the VM control program. The control program plus CMS together create a multi-user time-sharing operating system.
Contents
1 History
2 Architecture
3 Features
3.1 Basic environment
3.2 Terminal support
3.3 Performance
3.4 Programming and major applications
4 References

//

History
CMS was originally developed as part of IBM's CP/CMS operating system. At the time, the acronym meant "Cambridge Monitor System" (but also: "Console Monitor System").
CMS first ran under CP-40, a one-off research system using custom hardware at IBM's Cambridge Scientific Center. Production use at CSC began in January 1967. The CMS user interface drew heavily on experience with the influential first-generation time-sharing system CTSS, some of whose developers worked on CP/CMS. (CTSS was used as an early CP/CMS development platform.)
Later in 1967, CP/CMS became generally available on the IBM System/360-67, where, although the new control program CP-67 was a substantial re-implementation of CP-40, CMS remained essentially the same. IBM provided CP/CMS "as is" without any support, in source code form, as part of the IBM Type-III Library. CP/CMS was thus an open source system. Despite this lack of support from IBM, CP/CMS achieved great success as a time-sharing platform; by 1972, there were some 44 CP/CMS systems in use, including commercial sites that resold access to CP/CMS.
In 1972, IBM released its VM/370 operating system, a re-implementation of CP/CMS for the System/370, in an announcement that also added virtual memory hardware to the System/370 series. Unlike CP/CMS, VM/370 was supported by IBM. VM went through a series of versions, and is still in use today as z/VM.
Through all its distinct versions and releases, the CMS platform remained still quite recognizable as a close descendant of the original CMS version running under CP-40. Many key user interface decisions familiar to today's users had already been made in 1965, as part of the CP-40 effort. See CMS under CP-40 for examples.
Both VM and CP/CMS had checkered histories at IBM. VM was not one of IBM's "strategic" operating systems, which were primarily the OS and DOS families, and it suffered from IBM political infighting over time-sharing versus batch processing goals. This conflict is why CP/CMS was originally released as an unsupported system, and why VM often had limited development and support resources within IBM. An exceptionally strong user community, first established in the self-support days of CP/CMS but remaining active after the launch of VM, made substantial contributions to the operating system, and mitigated the difficulties of running IBM's "other operating system".
Architecture
CMS is an intrinsic part of the VM/CMS architecture, established with CP/CMS. Each CMS user has control over a private virtual machine a simulated copy of the underlying physical computer in which CMS runs as a stand-alone operating system. This approach has remained consistent through the years, and is based on:
Full virtualization, used to create multiple independent virtual machines that each completely simulate the underlying hardware
Paravirtualization, used to provide a hypervisor interface that CMS uses to access VM services; this is implemented by the non-virtualized DIAG (diagnose) instruction
More details on how CMS interacts with the virtual machine environment can be found in the VM and CP/CMS articles.
CMS was originally built as a stand-alone operating system, capable of running on a bare machine (though of course nobody would choose to do so). However, CMS can no longer run outside the VM environment, which provides the hypervisor interface needed for various critical functions.
Features
CMS provides users an environment for running applications or batch jobs, managing data files, creating and debugging applications, doing cross-platform development, and communicating with other systems or users.
CMS is still in development and wide use today.
Basic environment
Users log in to VM, providing a userid and password, and then boot their own virtual machine. This can be done by issuing the command "IPL CMS" ("IPL" = initial program load, traditional IBM jargon for booting a machine); though this is normally done automatically for the user. Personal customization is done by a standard shell script file named "PROFILE EXEC", which sets up user-specified environmental defaults, such as which disks and libraries are accessed.
Terminal support
CMS started in the era of teletype-style paper terminals, and the later "glass teletype" dumb terminals. By the late 1970s, however, most VM users were connecting via full-screen terminals particularly the IBM 3270, the ubiquitous transaction processing terminal on IBM mainframes. The 3270 played a strategic role in IBM's product line, making its selection a natural choice for large data centers of the day. Many other manufacturers eventually offered bisync terminals that emulated the 3270 protocol.
3270s had local buffer storage, some processing capabilities, and generally dealt with an entire screen of data at a time. They handled editing tasks locally, and then transmitted a set of fields (or the entire page) at once when the ENTER key or a program function key (PFK) was pressed.
The 3270 family incorporated "smart" control units, concentrators, and other network processing elements, communicating with the mainframe over dedicated circuits at relatively high speeds, via a bisync synchronous data transmission protocol. (These mainframe-oriented communication technologies provided some of the capabilities taken for granted in modern communication networks, such as device addressing, routing, error correction, and support for a variety of configurations such as multipoint and multidrop topologies.)
Historical note: The 3270 approach differed from lower-cost dumb terminals of the period, which were point-to-point[disambiguation needed] and asynchronous. Commercial time-sharing users, an important segment of early CP/CMS and VM sites, relied on such devices because they could connect via 300- or 1200 bit/s modems over normal voice-grade telephone circuits. Installing a dedicated circuit for a 3270 was often not practical, economical, or timely.
The 3270's block-oriented approach was more consistent with IBM's batch- and punchcard-oriented view of computing, and was particularly important for IBM mainframes of the day. Unlike contemporary minicomputers, most IBM mainframes were not equipped for character-at-a-time interrupts. Dumb terminal support relied on terminal control units such as the IBM 270x (see IBM 3705) or Memorex 1270. These asynchronous terminal controllers assembled a line of characters, up to a fixed maximum length, until the RETURN key was pressed. Typing too many characters would result in an error, a familiar situation to users of the day. (Most data centers did not include this equipment, except as needed for dial-up access. The 3270 approach was preferred.)
Block-oriented terminals like the 3270 made it practical to implement screen-oriented editors on mainframes as opposed to line-oriented editors, the previous norm. This had been an important...
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Lineman (occupation) for safety work glo...

xls116 — Mon, 24 Aug 2009 03:55:01 +0200

Electric Cable ,

Linemen repairing overhead lines (that supply power to trains)

Linemen repairing electricity distribution lines (that supply power to homes)
A lineman (American English) or linesman (British English) (also occasionally called a lineworker or a line electrician) is a tradesman who constructs and maintains electric power transmission and distribution facilities. The term is also used for those who install and maintain telephone, telegraph, cable TV and more recently fibre optic lines.
The term refers to those who work in generally outdoor installation and maintenance jobs. Those who install and maintain electrical wiring inside buildings are electricians.
Contents
1 History
2 Duties
3 In fiction
4 References
5 See also
6 External links

//

History
The occupation began with the widespread use of the telegraph in the 1840s. Telegraph lines could be strung on trees, but wooden poles were quickly adopted as the method of choice. The term 'lineman' was used for those who set wooden poles and strung the wire. The term continued in use with the invention of the telephone in the 1870s and the beginnings of electrification in the 1890s.
This new electrical power work proved to be much more hazardous than telegraph or telephone work because of the risk of electrocution. Between the 1890s and the 1930s, line work was considered one of the most hazardous jobs in existence. Approximately 1 in 3 linemen were killed on the job, mostly from electrocution. This led to the formation of labor organizations to represent the workers and advocate for their safety. The most important of these labor organizations in the United States, still in existence today, is the International Brotherhood of Electrical Workers. This also led to the establishment of apprenticeship programs and the establishment of more stringent safety standards, starting in the late 1930s.
Better tools and protective equipment were produced as the occupation grew and safety became a primary concern. Some early equipment shows remarkable ingenuity even though it often provided only minimal protection. For instance, the orange-colored covering linemen place on high-voltage lines is called hose, which recalls the earlier use of sections of ordinary garden hose for the same purpose.
In the United States, the rural electrification drive during the New Deal led to a wide expansion in the number of jobs in the electric power industry. Many power linemen during that period traveled around the country following jobs as they became available in tower construction, substation construction, and wire stringing. These roving workers or "boomers" as they were called, were known as rowdy risk-takers but also as hard workers with a strong sense of pride in their work. They often lived in temporary camps set up near the project they were working on, or in boarding houses if the work was in a town or city. The occupation was one of the most lucrative at the time, owing to the high level of skill needed and the hazardous nature of the work, but the hazards and the extensive travel limited the appeal of the work to only a hardy few. Often a lineman would finish one job with enough money to live on for several weeks or months before they would "boom out" to another job so
mewhere else.
A brief drive to electrify some railroads on the East Coast of the U.S. led to the development of a highly specialized branch of linemen who installed and maintained catenary overhead lines. Growth in this branch of line work stalled after most railroads chose to replace their steam engines with diesel, rather than electric, engines.
The occupation evolved during the 1940s and 1950s, as household electricity became more ubiquitous. As the public became more dependent on electricity, it became imperative that damaged power lines be repaired quickly. This led to an increase in the number of linemen needed to maintain power distribution circuits, and to keep them repaired in case of power outages, storms, or other emergencies. These maintenance linemen mostly stayed in one place and could settle down, although sometimes linemen could be called to travel to other states to help repair the damage from major storms such as hurricanes. Also during the 1950s, some electric lines began to be installed in underground tunnels, expanding the scope of the work. Safety standards and equipment have continued to improve; today, while still considered a somewhat hazardous occupation, line work is no longer as dangerous as it once was.
Duties
See also: Hot stickand Live-line working

Lineman replacing a transformer, wearing protective gear, including rubber gloves and sleeves
Power Linemen can work on either electrically energized (live) or de-energized (dead) power lines. When working with energized power lines, linemen must use protection to eliminate any contact with the energized line. Some distribution-level voltages can be worked using rubber gloves. The limit of how high a voltage can be worked using rubber gloves varies from company to company according to different safety standards (often negotiated in the union contract) and local laws. Voltages higher than those which can be worked using gloves are worked with special sticks known as hot-line tools, with which power lines can be safely handled from a distance. Linemen must also wear special rubber insulating gear when working with live wires to protect against any accidental contact with the wire. The buckets from which linemen sometimes work are also insulated using fiberglass.
Even de-energized power lines can be hazardous, owing to the complex nature of the electrical system. Even though one circuit may be ostensibly shut off, that circuit may still be conducting electricity from an interconnection with other live circuits. Thus, care must be taken to ensure that all possible sources of power to a circuit are removed. This can be especially dangerous when transformers are involved in the connection to another circuit, or one circuit is fed by more than one other circuit. For example: A higher-voltage distribution level circuit may feed several lower-voltage distribution circuits, using step down transformers. A step down transformer can also act in reverse as a step up transformer. If the higher voltage circuit is de-energized so it can be worked on, but any one of the lower-voltage circuits connected to it via a transformer remains energized, the transformer will convert the power in the lower-voltage circuit back to the higher voltage, and the h
igher voltage circuit will remain energized. This commonly occurs after destructive storms such as hurricanes have damaged the local primary lines and someone wires a generator into their house wiring incorrectly (without an isolation switch). This is known as backfeed. Another problem can arise when de-energized wires become energized through electrostatic or electromagnetic induction from energized wires in close proximity. One precaution against this is to connect all the wires in a circuit to each other and to ground before working on it, hence the saying, "if it's not grounded, it's not dead."
Incredible as it seems, live high voltage transmission lines can be worked barehanded. The lineman must be isolated from the ground by using an insulated bucket truck or other method. The lineman wears special conductive clothing which is connected to the live power line, at which point the line and the lineman are at the same potential, allowing the lineman to handle the wire safely. Such work is often done from helicopters and is considered a highly specialized area of line work; few linemen have the special training to perform it. Barehanded live-wire work can theoretically be done at any voltage, but because better protective means are available for lower voltages, it is only...
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Artificial Christmas tree for glass chri...

xls116 — Sun, 23 Aug 2009 09:22:02 +0200

Marble Handicrafts ,

An artificial fiber optic Christmas tree
Artificial Christmas trees are artificial pine and fir trees manufactured for the specific purpose of use as a Christmas tree. The earliest artificial Christmas trees were wooden, tree-shaped pyramids or feather trees, both developed by Germans. Most modern trees are made of polyvinyl chloride (PVC) but many other types of trees have been and are available, including aluminum Christmas trees and fiber optic Christmas trees.
Contents
1 History
2 Types of artificial trees
2.1 Feathers
2.2 Brush bristles
2.3 Aluminum
2.4 Plastic
2.5 Other
3 Sales and usage
4 Environmental issues
4.1 General issues
4.2 Lead contamination
5 See also
6 References
7 Further reading
8 External links

//

History
The first artificial Christmas trees were developed in Germany during the 19th century, though earlier examples exist. These "trees" were made using goose feathers that were dyed green. The German feather trees were one response by Germans to continued deforestation in Germany. Developed in the 1880s, the feather trees became increasingly popular during the early part of the 20th century. The German feather trees eventually made their way to the United States where they became rather popular as well. In fact, the use of natural Christmas trees in the United States was pre-dated by a type of artificial tree. These first trees were wooden, tree-shaped pyramids lit by candles, they were developed in Bethlehem, Pennsylvania by the German Moravian Church in 1747.
Types of artificial trees
Feathers
Feather Christmas trees, originally of German origin, became popular in the United States as well. Feather trees were initially made of green-dyed goose feathers which were attached to wire branches. These wire branches were then wrapped around a central dowel which acted as the trunk Feather Christmas trees ranged widely in size, from a small 2 inch tree to a large 98 inch tree sold in department stores during the 1920s. Often, the tree branches were tipped with artificial red berries which acted as candle holders. The branches were widely spaced to keep the candles from starting a fire, which allowed ample space for ornamentation. Other benefits touted for feather trees included the elimination of a trip to the tree lot and the lack of shed needles.
Brush bristles
In 1930 the U.S.-based Addis Brush Company created the first artificial Christmas tree made from brush bristles. The company used the same machinery that it used to manufacture toilet brushes. The trees were made from the same animal-hair bristles used in the brushes, save they were dyed green. For a time, the brush trees were immensely popular, with large numbers exported to Great Britain, where the trees also became popular. These brush trees offered advantages over the earlier feather trees. They could accept heavier ornamentation, and were not nearly as flammable.
Aluminum
Main article: Aluminum Christmas tree

An aluminum Christmas tree
Aluminum Christmas trees are a type of artificial tree that was made largely from aluminum. The trees were manufactured in the United States, first in Chicago in 1958, and later in Manitowoc, Wisconsin where the majority of the trees were produced. Aluminum trees were manufactured into the 1970s, and had their height of popularity from their inception until about 1965. That year A Charlie Brown Christmas aired for the first time, and its negative portrayal of aluminum Christmas trees is credited for a subsequent decline in sales.
Plastic

A PVC Christmas tree decorated with fairy lights and baubles
Most modern artificial Christmas trees are made from polyvinyl chloride (PVC) or other plastics. The manufacture of PVC requires petroleum and despite being plastic most artificial trees are not recyclable or biodegradable. PVC trees are fire-resistant but not incombustible. Many of these trees are made in China; from January to August 2005 $69 million worth of artificial trees from China entered the United States.
Plastic trees come in a variety of different styles. Some have become more and more lifelike over the years and may contain polyethylene in their branches for further realism. Pre-lit styles have become increasingly popular as well, including models that are "frosted" or designed for outdoor use. Plastic trees can come in a variety of different colors, and one type came with built-in speakers and an MP3 player.
Companies such as Mountain King, Barcana and the National Tree Company have marketed increasingly realistic PVC trees made to closely resemble Douglas fir, Ponderosa pine or other common types of Christmas trees. During the 1990s trees not only began to appear more realistic but some also smelled more realistic. Many of these more modern models came with pre-strung lights and hinged branches which simply had to be snapped into position.
Other

An stand-alone upside down Christmas tree
Trends in artificial tree consumption have constantly evolved and a number of designer and other types of artificial Christmas trees have appeared on the market. Fiber optic trees come in two major varieties, one resembles a traditional Christmas tree. The other type of fiber optic Christmas tree is one where the entire tree is made of wispy fiber optic cable, a tree composed entirely of light. David Gutshall, of Johnstown, Pennsylvania, received a patent for the latter type of fiber optic tree in 1998.
One Dallas-based company offers "holographic mylar" trees in many hues. Tree-shaped objects made from such materials as cardboard, glass, ceramic or other materials can be found in use as tabletop decorations.[citation needed] Upside-down artificial Christmas trees were originally introduced as a marketing gimmick; they allowed consumers to get closer to ornaments for sale in retail stores as well as opened up floor space for more products. There were three varieties of upside-down trees, those bolted to the ceiling, stand alone trees with a base, and half-trees bolted to walls.
Sales and usage
Artificial trees became increasingly popular during the late 20th century. Users of artificial Christmas trees assert that they are more convenient, and, because they are reusable, much cheaper than their natural alternative. Between 2001 and 2007 artificial Christmas tree sales jumped from 7.3 million to 17.4 million.
In 1992, in the United States, about 46 percent of homes displaying Christmas trees displayed an artificial tree. Twelve years later, a 2004 ABC News/Washington Post poll revealed that 58 percent of U.S. residents used an artificial tree instead of a natural tree. The real versus artificial tree debate has been popular in mass media through the early 21st century. The debate is a frequent topic of news articles during the Christmas holiday season. Early 21st century coverage of the debate focused on the decrease in natural Christmas tree sales, and rise in artificial tree sales over the late 1990s and early 2000s.
The rise in popularity of artificial trees did not go unnoticed by the Christmas tree farming industry in the United States. In 2004, the U.S. Christmas tree industry hired the advertising agency Smith-Harroff to spearhead an ad campaign aimed at rejuvenating lagging sales of natural trees. A 1975 poll by Michigan State University showed the reasons why consumers were beginning to prefer artificial over natural Christmas trees. The reasons included safety, one-time purchasing, and environmental responsibility but the biggest reason respondents gave pollsters was no messy needle clean up.
Environmental issues
General issues
The debate about the environmental impact of artificial trees is ongoing....
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Ocean Transportation Intermediary for oc...

xls116 — Fri, 21 Aug 2009 11:49:01 +0200

NDS Lite Rechargeable Battery Pack ,

An Ocean Transportation Intermediary (OTI) is licensed by the Federal Maritime Commission (FMC) to be an ocean freight forwarder, a non-vessel operating common carrier (NVOCC), or an ocean freight forwarder and NVOCC. This definition is provided per the FMC.
Categories: Water transport stubs
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Craftsman (tools) for Hand Forged Hardwa...

xls116 — Fri, 21 Aug 2009 11:09:01 +0200

spiked dog collar ,

Craftsman is a line of tools and lawn and garden equipment, owned by KCD IP, LLC (Kenmore Craftsman DieHard Intellectual Property, Limited Liability Company). The tools are sold in Sears, Kmart, and Orchard Supply Hardware stores (all three owned by Sears Holdings Corporation), as well as Fastenal, and US military Army and Air Force Exchange Service stores. The mechanics hand tools have been made by a variety of manufacturers over the years including New Britain, Moore Drop Forge, Easco, Stanley, and most recently the Danaher Corporation. Consumers have ranked the Craftsman brand second (surpassed only by Waterford crystal) in terms of quality. In 2007, Craftsman was named "America's Most Trusted Brand" and brand with "Highest Expectations". Since 1927, Craftsman has sold more hammers and other striking tools than any other brand. Craftsman is also the official tool of NASCAR.
Contents
1 History
2 Warranty
3 Legal Battles
4 References

//

History
Sears has sold its top-of-the-line hand tools under the "Craftsman" name since 1927. Their secondary line of hand tools is called simply "Sears", and according to many consumers they were of above average quality. The "Sears" tool line was discontinued around the late 1980s and replaced by the "Companion" tool line. The "Companion" tool line has also been discontinued and replaced by the "evolv" tool line, which has the same warranty as "Craftsman" with the caveat that it requires the original dated receipt to enact it. In recent years, a subset of the Craftsman line, known as "Craftsman Professional" has been introduced as a highest quality line under the Craftsman logo, and they are billed as Only The Best as a part of the Sears/Craftsman advertising campaign. In 2007, the Craftsman Brand team introduced the new tagline "There's A Craftsman In All of Us" changing the previous marque of "Craftsman makes anything possible".
Warranty
Craftsman hand tools have an unlimited lifetime warranty. This lifetime warranty program was instituted by Sears when they began selling the Craftsman line in 1927. This warranty program requires no receipt or dated proof of purchase. If the owner takes the item into a local retail store, it may be replaced or repaired free of charge. In some cases, such as ratchet wrenches, the customer may be offered a repair kit that he/she can use to repair the item. The unlimited lifetime warranty is voided if the tool is used in an industrial or commercial environment. For these situations, there is a special unlimited warranty program.
The Craftsman Unlimited Lifetime Warranty Policy is as follows:
If this Craftsman [hand tool]* ever fails to give complete satisfaction, return it to any Sears store or other Craftsman outlet in the United States for free repair or replacement. **This warranty gives you specific legal rights and you may have other rights, which vary, from state to state.
The hand tool lifetime warranty is also in effect on many Craftsman Lawn & Garden products including rakes, shovels, clippers, brooms, trowels, pruners, hoses, sprinklers, hose nozzles and other small gardening hand tools.
In 2003 Sears removed the lifetime warranty from Craftsman flashlights. Another limitation to the warranty introduced in 2003 Craftsman tape measures carry a lifetime warranty on all parts except the blade itself. Replacement blades, however, were made available for purchase from the stores to offset this policy.
The lifetime warranty does not include Craftsman power tools and precision hand tools. Craftsman portable power tools, bench power tools, air compressors, powered lawn & garden products and other powered items carry various warranties while many specialty hand tools such as torque wrenches, except beam-type torque wrenches which carry a Lifetime Warranty, and work lights carry a one year warranty. Sears offers Merchandise Replacement Agreements and Master Protection Agreements on most of their tools that extends the basic warranty. Master Protection Agreements also include yearly maintenance checks that may take place either in the home or at a local Sears repair center depending on the portability of the item. Repair Protection Agreements are available exclusively on powered Lawn & Garden products and are nearly identical to the Master Protection Agreements except lack the yearly maintenance checks.
After the merger, Kmart began selling Craftsman products and honor the hand tool lifetime warranty.
* The words "hand tool" are often replaced on the product's packaging with the actual name of the tool. i.e. wrench, hammer, or shovel.** On certain products, there is an additional sentence added into the warranty noting that it does not cover expendable parts such as replacement blades for utility knives or the tape on tape measures.
Legal Battles
Craftsman tools came under fire in 2004 in a lawsuit accusing Sears, Roebuck and Co. of false advertising and consumer fraud for questionable use of the "Made in USA" slogan. While most Craftsman hand tools are manufactured in the U.S., many power tools and accessories are manufactured overseas, sometimes with the final assembly taking place in the U.S.
References
^ Source: Nov. 2002 EquiTrend(SM) survey by Harris Interactive
^ Source: Equitrend 2007
^ source: Sears PR news
^ Suit Hits Sears Made In USA Claim

v?d?eSears Holdings Corporation
Current Management:
W. Bruce Johnson, interim CEO Edward Lampert, Chairman (major owner)
Founders:
Sebastian S. Kresge Alvah C. Roebuck Richard Sears
Retailers:
Kmart Big Kmart Super Kmart Lands' End Sears Sears Grand Sears Hardware Sears Appliance Dealer Sears Outlet Sears Parts & Repair The Great Indoors Orchard Supply Hardware Sears Canada Sears Mexico
Brands:
Craftsman DieHard Kenmore Joe Boxer Martha Stewart Everyday
Annual Revenue: ?$49.124 billion USD (2006) Employees: 355,000 (2006) Stock Symbol: NASDAQ SHLD Website: searsholdings.com
Categories: Tool manufacturers | Store brands
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Corn stoves for buy pellets wood

xls116 — Fri, 21 Aug 2009 09:12:02 +0200

The New LUMIN Smart Board ,

(Redirected from Corn stove)
The examples and perspective in this article may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. Please improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page.

A major contributor to this article appears to have a conflict of interest with its subject. It may require cleanup to comply with Wikipedia's content policies, particularly neutral point of view. Please discuss further on the talk page. (October 2008)
Corn stoves, (also spelled as CornStoves, Corn Fireplaces), is a home heater or a small business heater that uses local renewable whole kernel shelled corn, wood pellets or multiple biomass as fuel. Local renewable whole kernel shelled corn is supplied by two million local farmers in the United States of America, or globally, in maize producing areas. Properly installed corn stoves can reduce home heating costs by 80%. A cornstove can burn biomass fuel of any type that the auger will feed such as wood pellets, soybeans, cherry seeds, orange seeds, or screened wood chips. In the event of a malfunction, Corn as a fuel will self extinguish in less than 60 seconds. Other biomass fuels like wood will continue to burn until all the fuel is gone. A biomass or wood pellet stove will not burn corn.
The cornstove has an infinitely variable controller for BTU output rate which reduces waste energy. Other types of heaters have Set Point Controls that continuously switch "off" and "on". Infinitely variable controls allow for cost effective control of relative humidity and temperature simultaneously. Here is why: A constant temperature is required to maintain a constant room relative humidity and avoid reheat cost of moist air and dry air each temperature cycle. Most heaters are actuated by the thermostat. Energy is wasted each cycle to reheat the cooled air and cool moisture in the air. Also the relative humidity is forced to swing 3% for each degree of temperature change. The steady heat output of a corn stove cost effectively maintains a precise room temperature which allows the relative humidity to be controlled precisely and exactly at the desired per cent RH. The recommended healthy 50% RH is more economical to maintain. Extra heat input is not required to raise "high
BTU" moist air to room temperature. "High BTU" moist room air that escapes through a leak or doorway is overly expensive if the room RH is greater than 50%. Dry air below 50% RH is relatively inexpensive to heat and the loss thereof through a leak, window, or doorway is relatively inconsequential to the monthly heating or air conditioning bill no matter which type HVAC system is installed.
Contents
1 Overview
2 Fuel supply
3 Styles
4 Safety
5 Environment
6 Availability
7 See also
8 References

//

Overview
A corn stove stirs the fuel during combustion. The requirement to stir corn during combustion is the one safety feature separating tennesseecornstoves from solid fuel stoves. For example, a wood pellet stove can burn the house down if the hopper full of fuel catches ablaze. Corn in a container or stove hopper is completely safe from combustion. Corn must be stirred to release the 34% hydrogen contained inside the kernel. A pellet stove does not stir the fuel as required for corn combustion. The TennesseeCornStove will burn solid biomass fuel like whole kernel shelled corn, biomass pellet fuels, wood pellets, grass, or trash. A corn stove is unique as the only stove that will burn 100% shelled corn, or mixtures of wood pellets, cherry pits, soy beans, orange seeds, lemon seeds, grape seeds, rice, or screened crushed corn cobs. It is also a stove that will burn solid fuels. that require constant stirring or constant vibration to support combustion. Once the stirring or vibratio
n of the burning fuel is eliminated, a corn flame will self extinguish within seconds. Locally renewable shelled corn is safe, clean, environmentally friendly, non-volatile, non-explosive. Corn produces no smoke (zero opacity), and very little (0.00x MMBTU)carbon dioxide. Corn combustion can be 98.6% efficient releasing five to ten gallons of solid effluent per home per year. Unique to corn stoves is the ability to safely preheat both the combustion air and fuel by safely storing the corn inside. Use inside combustion air. Vent the corn combustion exhaust effluents outside.
Corn has no [[Volatile organic compound|VOC). Corn is edible. Corn combustion will self-extinguish within 60 seconds even while applying the customary three "fat" elements required for combustion: fuel/air/temp. In addition to "FAT", (TTT) Time, Temperature and turbulence are also required for corn combustion. Corn will not burn in a bucket or in a pile but may parch, pop, or cook. Corn will not flame/explode/propagate unless properly stirred. A corn stove will burn corn, soybeans, wood, pellets, trash. A wood pellet stove will not burn corn but may permit some ratio of corn to be mixed with the wood pellets which inadvertently provide the required turbulence for the corn as the wood size is reduced by combustion.
Fuel supply
Local farms in the US raise corn, supply commercial corn demand, and compete for the local and global corn market. Corn yield can be economically controlled from 50 bushel per acre to 300 bushel per acre within two months of harvest. Eighty to 100 million acres (400,000km2) of corn are grown annually in the US alone. Over 125 million acres (510,000km2) of corn were grown annually in the US to feed farm animals and people prior to modern mechanization methods of farming.
Styles
Corn stoves are manufactured in styles not limited to free standing, fireplace insert, HVAC connected home furnace heaters, home cooking corn stove grills, and outside corn burning furnaces.
Safety
Although corn stoves have been available for several years, there have been no recorded home fires resultant from a corn stove . Home insurance rates have no added cost for using corn as a heating fuel.
Environment
Corn has been estimated by the Sierra Club to reduce global warming by annually converting a net positive 484 pounds of carbon dioxide into oxygen.
The United States Environmental Protection Agency? (EPA) test results for a Tennessee corn stove record airborne particulates of 0.001 pounds per million BTU as compared to 0.1 MMBTU for gas, 5.0 MMBTU for wood and 0.5 MMBTU for coal. A corn stove will produce approximately 5 gallons of solid potash particulate annually in a southern US city or 10 gal potash particulate annually in a 1500 sq foot home located in a northern city.
Availability
Corn stoves, corn fireplaces, corn fireplace inserts and corn grills are available in the 48 continental US states.
See also
Corn kernels
Pellet stove
Renewable heat
Wood pellets
References
^ http://www.nfpa.org

v?d?eBioenergy
Biofuels
Algae fuel ? Bagasse ? Babassu oil ? Biobutanol ? Biodiesel ? Biogas ? Biogasoline ? Cellulosic ethanol ? Ethanol fuel ? Vegetable oil
Energy crops
Chinese tallow ? Hemp ? Maize ? Rapeseed ? Sorghum bicolor ? Soybean ? Stover ? Straw ? Sugarcane ? Sunflower
Non food energy crops
Arundo ? Energy crop ? Energy forestry ? Jatropha curcas ? Miscanthus giganteus ? Switchgrass ? Wood fuel
Technology
Bioconversion ? Biomass heating systems ? Biorefinery ? Fischer-Tropsch process ? Industrial biotechnology ? Pellet mill ? Pellet stove ? Thermal depolymerization
Concepts
Cellulosic ethanol commercialization ? Energy content of biofuel ? EROEI ? Food vs fuel ? Sustainable biofuel
Categories: Heaters | Fuels | Bioenergy | Heating, ventilating, and air conditioning
Hidden categories: Articles with limited geographic scope | Wikipedia articles needing style editing from October 2008 |...
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Viyella for cotton woven shirts

xls116 — Fri, 21 Aug 2009 07:26:01 +0200

Rash Guard - Red & Black Short Sleeve ,

Viyella was a blend of wool and cotton first woven in 1893 in England, and soon to be the "first branded fabric in the world". It was made of 55 per cent merino wool and 45 per cent cotton in a twill weave, developed by James and Robert Sissons of William Hollins & Company, spinners and hosiers. The brand name, first registered as a trademark in 1894, and registered in the United States in 1907, soon covered not only the original fabric, to be sold by the yard (piece goods), but also clothing. At first this was made by separate businesses, but it was not long before Hollins started producing their own clothes and offering franchises to manufacturers who would use the Viyella label. Following increasing emphasis on garment manufacture over the years, Viyella is now a fashion brand for clothes and home furnishings made of a variety of fabrics. The original wool/cotton blend is no longer on sale.
"Following an assessment of the current economic situation and the prospects for the future, the directors have reluctantly decided that they have no alternative but to place the business into administration," the company said in a statement. 7th January 2009 statement from Viyella.
Contents
1 The fabric
2 The companies
3 References
4 Further reading
5 External links

//

The fabric
Viyella was a soft dress-weight fabric which was more resistant to shrinkage than any comparable pure wool alternative (challis, for example). In its early years it was marketed as a fabric which combined lightness and fashion with warmth and durability. One 1920s advertisement called it a "guaranteed unshrinkable fine wool flannel" for women who wanted both "daintiness" and "protectiveness". By the early 20th century it came in various weights and widths, some rather narrow by today's standards, and in both plain colours and woven or printed patterns, and was exported from the United Kingdom to other English-speaking countries. Towards the end of the 20th century it was woven in 150cm wide lengths suitable for modern garment design and production.
The first ready-made garments using Viyella were shirts and nightgowns, and soon came dresses, slips and other clothing, much of it produced under franchise arrangements using the Viyella trademark. It was also made into sheets, and at one time Viyella yarn was available for home knitting.
In the mid-20th century the fabric was popular for children's clothes - from babies' nightgowns to winter shirts for British schoolchildren - and for pyjamas, shirts and dresses; it became associated with sensible, cosy clothing. Officers in the British and other Commonwealth armies purchased their uniforms during the Second World War, and Viyella shirts were a desirable option for them. In the late 20th century it was 're-invented' as fashionable fabric. In 1987 The Times said it was used by designers interested in "vintage" style, like Laura Ashley, and creators of "modern classics".
Clydella was a cheaper, less soft alternative made with 81 per cent cotton, produced at factories in the Clydeside area, including Glasgow and Hamilton, where many yards of Viyella were also woven.
Hollins also produced the related Dayella cloth used especially for babies' clothes.
The companies
The name Viyella is based on the unusually-named valley road, Via Gellia, (the A5012) near Matlock, where in 1890 Hollins & Co acquired a mill used for the early production of Viyella. Hollins had started business in 1784 in Pleasley, about 20 miles away on the Derbyshire/Nottinghamshire border. Later their offices were at Viyella House in Nottingham.
After a merger in 1961, Hollins became Viyella International, led by Joe Hyman, who in the next few years acquired a series of related companies, with Viyella growing to be one of the biggest textile businesses in the UK, owning 40 factories across the country. After a few years as Carrington Viyella and then Vantona Viyella, the company owning the brand became Coats Viyella (Coats Paton, now Coats plc), who in the 1980s built a new mill to produce Viyella cloth in Barrowford, Lancashire, but this was demolished in 1999. In the 21st century much of Coats manufacturing (now specialising in thread) has been moved abroad and it is no longer possible to buy Viyella fabric. Coats underwent major restructuring in 2002 and sold off its Viyella fashion retail business (and Jaeger) to entrepreneur Richard Thompson in 2003 for ?1, who re-sold Viyella weeks later to venture capitalist Harris Watson. Viyella Ladieswear has since added home furnishings to its range of goods. The fashion c
hain entered Administration on the 7th January 2009 citing "an assessment of the current economic situation and the prospects for the future" as the cause.
As of February 6th 2009, the upmarket retailer Austin Reed had agreed to buy Viyella for an undisclosed sum.
References
The Times: Fashion: Soft touch for a romantic, 8 September 1987
The Times: Obituary of "Joe Hyman, textile magnate", 8 July 1999
Daily Telegraph: Thompson measures Austin Reed bid, 28 March 2003
Viyella history
Textiles in the Glasgow area
^ a b Times, 8 Sep 1987
^ Trade Marks Journal, 6 June 1894, cited in the Oxford English Dictionary
^ The Scotsman, 21 Nov 1927
Further reading
Stanley Pigott, Hollins: A Study of Industry (William Hollins & Co., 1949)
F.A. Wells, Hollins and Viyella (David & Charles 1968)
Textile Dictionary online
Pictures of Viyella production c.1950
Australian Women's Weekly: Viyella advertising 1946-1971
External links
Viyella

v?d?eFabric
Woven:
Barkcloth Batiste Bombazine Broadcloth Buckram Bunting Burlap Calico Cambric Canvas Chambray Charmeuse Charvet Cheesecloth Chiffon Chino Cloth of gold Duck Coutil Crape Denim Dimity Dowlas Drill Foulard Flannel Gabardine Gauze Gingham Grenadine Grenfell Cloth Haircloth Harris Tweed Hodden Irish linen Jamdani Kente cloth Lam Lawn Linsey-woolsey Loden Madras Moleskin Muslin Ninon Oilskin Organdy Organza Osnaburg Ottoman Oxford Percale Poplin Rep Ripstop Ripstop nylon Russell cord Samite Sateen Satin Scarlet Seersucker Serge Stuff Taffeta Toile Tweed Twill Viyella
Figured woven:
Brocade Camlet Damask Songket
Pile woven:
Baize Chenille Corduroy Fustian Plush Polar fleece Terrycloth Velours du Kasa? Velvet Velveteen Zibeline
Nonwoven:
Felt Nonwovens
Knitted:
Coolmax Machine knitting Velour
Netted:
Net Bobbinet Carbon fiber Fishnet Lace Mesh Needlerun Net Ninon Tulle
Technical:
Ban-Lon Gore-Tex Smartwool Silnylon Spandex SympaTex
Patterns:
Argyle Herringbone Houndstooth Paisley Plaid Tartan
Textile fibers:
Acrylic Alpaca Angora Asbestos Carbon Fiber Cashmere Catgut Chamois Coir Cotton Hemp Jute Kevlar Linen Mohair Nylon Microfibre Olefin Pashmina Polyester Pi?a Ramie Rayon Sea silk Silk Sinew Sisal Spandex Spider silk Wool
Finishing and printing:
Batik Banfini Finishing Fulling Mercerization Roller printing Textile printing Watered silk Woodblock printing
Related:
Dyeing Fiber History of textiles History of silk Knitting Pandy Terminology Manufacturing Preservation Weaving Yarn
Categories: Woven fabrics
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Nickel silver for Nickel Silver Alloy

xls116 — Fri, 21 Aug 2009 04:44:01 +0200

alloy bracelet ,

Nickel silver is a metal alloy of copper with nickel and often but not always zinc. It is named for its silvery appearance, but contains no elemental silver unless plated. Other common names for this alloy are German silver, paktong, new silver and alpacca (or alpaca).
Contents
1 Uses
1.1 Toxicity
2 History
3 See also
4 References
5 External links

//

Uses
Nickel silver first became popular as a base metal for silver plated cutlery and other silverware, notably the electroplated wares called EPNS (electro-plated nickel silver).
It is used in zippers, better-quality keys, costume jewellery, for making musical instruments (e.g., cymbals), and is preferred for the track in electrically powered model railway layouts as its oxide is conductive. Also, after about 1920, its use became widespread for pocketknife bolsters, due to its machinability and corrosion resistance. Prior to this point, most common was iron.
It is widely used in the production of coins (e.g. GDR marks, Portuguese escudo).
Its industrial and technical uses include marine fittings and plumbing fixtures for its corrosion resistance, and heating coils for its high electrical resistance.
It was used in the construction of the National tricone resophonic guitar. It is also used to produce the tubes (called staples) onto which oboe reeds are tied. Guitar frets are made from it, as well on mandolin, banjo, bass, etc.
Musical instruments, including the flute, saxophone, and French horn can be made of nickel silver. For example, some leading saxophone manufacturers such as Keilwerth, Selmer, P.Mauriat, Yanagisawa, and Yamaha offer saxophones made of nickel silver which possess a bright and powerful sound quality; an additional benefit is that nickel silver does not require a lacquer finish. For that reason also, it is the most commonly used woodwind keys material - most clarinets, oboes and similar wind instruments have nickel silver keys.
Toxicity
According to the Merck Manual 17th edition p56, prolonged contact of copper alloys with acidic food or beverages (including boiling milk) can leach out the copper and cause toxicity. Long term, low doses can lead to cirrhosis.
History
Nickel silver is first known in China, and was known in the west from imported wares called paktong or pakfong (??, literally "white copper") where the silvery metal colour was used to imitate sterling silver. According to Berthold Laufer, it was identical with khar sini, one of the seven metals recognized by Geber. It was discovered to be a copper-nickel-zinc alloy in the 18th century. In 1770 the Suhl (Germany) metalworks were able to produce a similar alloy and in 1823 a competition was initiated to perfect the production process by creating an alloy that possessed the closest visual similarity to silver. The brothers Henniger in Berlin and Ernst August Geitner in Schneeberg independently achieved this goal. Alpacca became a widely known name in northern Europe for nickel silver after it was used as a trademark brand by the manufacturer Berndorf. A form of German silver was also invented in Birmingham, England in 1832.
Nickel silver became widely used after 1840 with the development of electroplating, as it formed an ideal strong and bright substrate for the plating process. It was also used unplated in applications such as cheaper grades of cutlery.
See also
Cupronickel
Britannia metal
References
^ Holmyard, E. J. (1957). Alchemy, p. 80. New York: Dover.
External links
National Pollutant Inventory - Copper and compounds fact sheet
Nickel Silver, German Silver and related alloys
Categories: Nickel alloys | Copper alloys | Silver
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Guillaume Amontons for Thermometer Barom...

xls116 — Fri, 21 Aug 2009 04:08:02 +0200

Integrated 2M Tester(TLP-E1) ,

"Amontons" redirects here. For the lunar crater, see Amontons (crater).
"laws of friction" redirects here. For the laws of motion, see Newton's laws of motion.

Guillaume Amontons
Guillaume Amontons
Born
August 31, 1663Paris, France
Died
October 11, 1705Paris
Nationality
French
Fields
physics
Knownfor
tribology
Guillaume Amontons (August 31, 1663 - October 11, 1705) was a French scientific instrument inventor and physicist. He was one of the pioneers in tribology, apart from Leonardo da Vinci, John Theophilius Desanguliers, Leonard Euler and Charles-Augustin de Coulomb.
Contents
1 Life
2 Work
2.1 Scientific instruments
2.2 Thermodynamics
2.3 Friction
3 Amontons' Laws of Friction
3.1 Explaining Friction
3.2 Amontons First Law Explained*
3.3 Amontons Second Law Explained*
3.4 In summary
4 Honours
5 See also
6 Notes
7 Bibliography
8 External links

//

Life
Guillaume was born in Paris, France. His father was a lawyer from Normandy who had moved to the French capital. While still young, Guillaume lost his hearing, which may have motivated him to focus entirely on science. He never attended a university, but was able to study mathematics, the physical sciences, and celestial mechanics. He also spent time studying the skills of drawing, surveying, and architecture.
He died in Paris, France.
Work
He was supported in his research career by the government, and was employed in various public works projects.
Scientific instruments
Among his contributions to scientific instrumentation were improvements to the barometer (1695), hygrometer (1687), and thermometer (1695), particularly for use of these instruments at sea. He also demonstrated an optical telegraph and proposed the use of his clepsydra (water clock) for keeping time on a ship at sea.
Thermodynamics
Amontons investigated the relationship between pressure and temperature in gases though he lacked accurate and precise thermometers. Though his results were at best semi-quantitative, he established that the pressure of a gas increases by roughly one-third between the temperatures of cold and the boiling point of water. This was a substantial step towards the subsequent gas laws and, in particular, Charles's law.
His work led him to speculate that a sufficient reduction in temperature would lead to the disappearance of pressure. Thus, he is the first researcher to discuss the concept of an absolute zero of temperature, a concept later extended and rationalised by William Thomson, 1st Baron Kelvin.
Friction
In 1699, Amontons published his rediscovery of the laws of friction first put forward by Leonardo da Vinci. Though they were received with some scepticism, the laws were verified by Charles-Augustin de Coulomb in 1781.
Amontons' Laws of Friction
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519)) can be named as the father of modern tribology as he studied an incredible manifold of tribological subtopics such as: friction, wear, bearing materials, plain bearings, lubrication systems, gears, screw-jacks, and rolling-element bearings. 150 years before Amontons' Laws of Friction were introduced, he had already recorded them in his manuscripts. Hidden or lost for centuries, Leonardo da Vinci's manuscripts were read in Spain a quarter of a millennium later.
Amontons' Laws of Friction were first recorded in books during the late 17th century.
There 3 laws of friction are:
1. The force of friction is directly proportional to the applied load. (Amontons 1st Law)
2. The force of friction is independent of the apparent area of contact. (Amontons 2nd Law)
3. Kinetic friction is independent of the sliding velocity. (Coulomb's Law)
NOTE: These 3 laws only apply to dry friction, in which the addition of a lubricant modifies the tribological properties signifiantly.
Explaining Friction
By looking at any surface on the microscopic level, one would find that it is never perfectly flat. There would exist many tiny bumps and craters, due to imperfections on the surface and the alignment of molecules. (The skin does not feel the bumps and craters because they are too small to be detected.) Considering a smooth stone on a smooth flat road, the two surfaces would be still in contact, but only at a few points (the bumps do fot fit exactly into the craters). Due to electrostatic forces of repulsion between the atoms(nuclei and nuclei)[citation needed] of the stone and the road, the road will exert a force on the stone, and the stone will exert a force on the road (normal contact forces). The NET force exerted on the stone would be the NORMAL contact force.
If net external forces cause the stone to move to the RIGHT, the forces that the road exert on the stone would be slightly skewed to the LEFT, thus the net force will be pointing UP but LEFTWARD (tilted contact force). As the vertical component of the net force is the normal contact force, the extra horizontal leftward component of the force would therefore be the FRICTIONAL force. (Note: friction OPPOSES motion)
Amontons First Law Explained*
Suppose the stone had a greater mass (hence greater weight as g=constant). The stone would then:
exert a greater force on the road (the increased load causes the separation distance of the nuclei to decrease, force of repulsion becomes stronger(inverse-square law) ), AND
more of the atoms of the road and the stone would be in contact.
Hence, when the stone is moved, a greater frictional force would be produced (more areas of contact means that more forces can be skewed, producing more horizontal components of the contact forces).
Amontons law applies to any 2 surfaces, regardless of their orientation. (e.g. pressing a brick against the ceiling, etc.)
NOTE: Applied load means the normal contact force acting on the stone. That is, if the stone is being pushed down harder while it was trying to move, the force acting on the ground increases, and hence the force of the ground acting on the stone (normal contact) increases. This means that more force is required to move the stone across the ground. (frictional force increase)
Amontons Second Law Explained*
What this law means is that if two equal masses made of similar material are resting on the same surface with DIFFERENT SURFACES AREAS OF CONTACT, they would require the SAME AMOUNT of FORCE to start moving (overcome static friction) and to move at constant speed+.
To put it in another way: considering 2 equal masses, and the area in contact in situation A is greater than in situation B. This only means that in situation A, the load is distributed across a greater area then in situation B. However, the applied load is still the same! Thus to move both masses, we would require the same amount of applied force to overcome friction. (Amontons First Law)
+ To maintain constant speed, net force has to be 0N. Assuming no drag forces,
In summary
Through studies and experimental observations on the properties of friction, a relationship between frictional force and normal contact force was established:
,
where ? is the coefficient of friction and N is the normal contact force.
This is as predicted by Amontons' two laws, where Ffric depends only on the normal contact force (reaction pair of the applied load), and is independent of the surface area in contact.
However, exceptions to Amontons' Law have been observed in various nanometric scenarios. For example, when two surfaces get close enough such that molecular interactions and atomic forces come into play, the two surfaces are attracted together and form what was known as 'negative load'.
..
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